Coronary heart disease (CHD) remains a leading cause of death in the industrialized countries. Despite recent declines in CHD mortality, CHD is still responsible for more than 500,000 deaths in the U.S. annually. It is estimated that CHD, directly and indirectly, costs the U.S. more than $100 billion a year. The primary cause of CHD is atherosclerosis, a disease characterized by the deposition of lipids in the arterial vessel wall, resulting in a narrowing of the vessel passages and ultimately hardening the vascular system.
Atherosclerosis as manifested in its major clinical complication, ischaemic heart disease, is thought to begin with local injury to the arterial endothelium followed by proliferation of arterial smooth muscle cells from the medial layer to the intimal layer along with deposition of lipid and accumulation of foam cells in the lesion. As the atherosclerotic plaque develops, it progressively occludes more and more blood vessel and can eventually lead to ischaemia or infarction. Therefore, it is desirable to provide a method of inhibiting the progression of atherosclerosis in patients in need thereof.
Hypercholesterolemia is an important risk factor associated with CHD. For example, in December 1984, a National Institute of Health Consensus Development Conference Panel concluded that lowering plasma cholesterol levels (specifically blood levels of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol) will definitely reduce the risk of heart attacks due to CHD. Serum lipoproteins are the carriers for lipids in the circulation. They are classified according to their density: chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Chylomicrons mainly participate in transporting dietary triglycerides and cholesterol from the intestine to adipose tissue and liver. VLDL deliver endogenously synthesized triglycerides from liver to adipose and other tissues. LDL transports cholesterol to peripheral tissues and regulate endogenous cholesterol levels in those tissues. HDL transports cholesterol from peripheral tissues to the liver. Arterial wall cholesterol is derived almost exclusively from LDL. Brown and Goldstein, Ann. Rev. Biochem. 52, 223 (1983); Miller, Ann. Rev. Med. 31, 97 (1980)). In patients with low levels of LDL, the development of atherosclerosis is rare. Accordingly, it is desirable to provide a method for reducing plasma cholesterol in patients with hypercholesterolemia or at risk of developing hypercholesterolemia.
Elevated cholesterol levels are also associated with a number of disease states, including restenosis, angina, cerebral arteriosclerosis, and xanthoma. It is desirable to provide a method for reducing plasma cholesterol in patients with, or at risk of developing, restenosis, angina, cerebral arteriosclerosis, xanthoma, and other disease states associated with elevated cholesterol levels.
Vascular cell adhesion molecule-1 (VCAM-1) and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) are adhesion molecules in the immunoglobulin superfamily that are upregulated in vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells by cytokines, such as, for example, interleukin-1 (IL-1), interleukin-4 (IL-4) and tumor necrosis factor-.alpha. (TNF-.alpha.). Through interaction with the appropriate integrin counter receptor, VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 mediate adhesion and transendothelial migration of leukocytes in inflammatory responses. Inhibitors of VCAM-1 and/or ICAM-1 have therapeutic applications for many types of chronic inflammatory disorders including atherosclerosis, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, and autoimmune diabetes. For example, in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical analysis of atherosclerotic plaques from patients demonstrate an increased level of adhesion molecules (VCAM-1 and ICAM-1) when compared with non-disease areas. O'Brien, K. D. et al., J. Clin. Invest. 92, 945-951 (1993); Davies, M. J. et al., J. Pathol. 171, 223-229 (1993); Poston, R. N. et al., Am. J. Pathol. 140, 665-673 (1992). An atherogenic diet induces VCAM-1 expression in rabbit aortic endothelium and vascular smooth muscle cells within atheromas. Poston, R. N. et al., Ibid.; Cybulsky, M. I. et al., Science 251, 788-791 (1991); Li, H. et al., Arterioscler. Thromb. 13, 197-204 (1993). Considering these previous studies, increased VCAM-1 expression is believed to be associated with initiation and progression of atherosclerotic plaques through recruitment of circulating monocytes to the lesion area.
Furthermore, VCAM-1 is also involved as a mediator in other chronic inflammatory disorders such as asthma, rheumatoid arthritis and autoimmune diabetes. For example, it is known that the expression of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 are increased in asthmatics. Pilewski, J. M. et al., Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 12, 1-3 (1995); Ohkawara, Y. et al., Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol. 12, 4-12 (1995). Additionally, blocking the integrin receptors for VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 (VLA-4 and LFA-1, respectively) suppressed both early and late phase responses in an ovalbumin-sensitized rat model of allergic airway responses. Rabb, H. A. et al., Am. J. Respir. Care Med. 149, 1186-1191 (1994). There is also increased expression of endothelial adhesion molecules, including VCAM-1, in the microvasculature of rheumatoid synovium. Koch, A. E. et al, Lab. Invest. 64, 313-322 (1991); Morales-Ducret, J. et al., Immunol. 149, 1421-1431 (1992). Neutralizing antibodies directed against VCAM-1 or its counter receptor, VLA-4, can delay the onset of diabetes in a mouse model (NOD mice) which spontaneously develop the disease. Yang, X. D. et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 90, 10494-10498 (1993); Burkly, L. C. et al., Diabetes 43, 523-534 (1994); Baron, J. L. et al., J. Clin. Invest. 93, 1700-1708 (1994). Monoclonal antibodies to VCAM-1 can also have a beneficial effect in animal models of allograft rejection, suggesting that inhibitors of VCAM-1 expression may have utility in preventing transplant rejection. Orocz, C. G. et al., Immunol. Lett. 32, 7-12 (1992).
VCAM-1 is expressed by cells both as a membrane bound form and as a soluble form. The soluble form of VCAM-1 has been shown to induce chemotaxis of vascular endothelial cells in vitro and stimulate an angiogenic response in rat cornea. Koch, A. E. et al., Nature 376, 517-519 (1995). Inhibitors of the expression of soluble VCAM-1 have potential therapeutic value in treating diseases with a strong angiogenic component, including tumor growth and metastasis. Folkman, J., and Shing, Y., J. Biol. Chem. 10931-10934 (1992).
The promoters for both VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 have been cloned and characterized. For example, both promoters contain multiple DNA sequence elements which can bind the transcription factor, NF-kB. Iademarco, M. F. et al., J. Biol. Chem. 267, 16323-16329 (1992); Voraberger, G. et al., J. Immunol. 147, 2777-2786 (1991). The NF-kB family of transcription factors is central in the regulation of several genes upregulated within sites of inflammation. The activation of NF-kB as a transcription factor involves dissociation from an inhibitory subunit, IkB, in the cytoplasm. NF-kB subunits translocate to the nucleus, bind to specific DNA sequence elements, and activate transcription of several genes, including VCAM-1 and ICAM-1. Collins T. et al., Lab. Invest. 68, 499-508 (1993).
It has been postulated that regulation of VCAM-1 gene expression may be coupled to oxidative stress through specific reduction-oxidation (redox) sensitive transcriptional or posttranscriptional regulatory factors. The antioxidants pyrollidine dithiocarbamate and N-acetylcysteine inhibit cytokine-induced expression of VCAM-1, but not ICAM-1 in vascular endothelial cells. Mauri, N. et al., J. Clin. Invest. 92, 1866-1874 (1993). This would indicate that the inhibition of VCAM-1 expression by antioxidants involves some additional factors not involved in the regulation of ICAM-1 expression.
2,6-Di-alkyl-4-silyl-phenols are disclosed as antiatherosclerotic agents by Parker et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 5,155,250, issued Oct. 13, 1992. Furthermore, 2,6-Di-alkyl-4-silyl-phenols are disclosed as serum cholesterol lowering agents in PCT International Publ. No. WO 95/15760, published Jun. 15, 1995.
It would be advantageous to control the release of VCAM-1 and/or ICAM-1, and to treat VCAM-1 and/or ICAM-1 mediated effects. It would also be advantageous to control or treat chronic inflammation, without production of concomitant side effects known to accompany the use of antiinflammatory steroids and non-steroidal antiinflammatory agents.